IT Development in Major Business Firms

The purpose of this White Paper is to inform you on the Information Technology situation at Enqvist Int. Information Technology is all the hardware, software, telecommunications, database management, and other information that we use to process technology using computer based information systems. IT helps create business strategies in many business fields, including Business Management. In this white paper, you will be presented with the current standing of our IT development as well as improvements that can and should be make to increase company productivity. By further developing our IT infrastructure, Enqvist Int. an improve so that we have the most up to date technology available in our field. More specifically, I am going to present to you the possibilities associated with upgrading our current software, databases as well as our telecommunications network within the organization. A few of the benefits that will be received will be increased collaboration, quicker, easier access to customer information as well as to supplier information. These details are discussed in depth in the scope of this white paper. Enqvist Int. is a manufacturing company that produces office equipment. The production plant is based in New Albany and we distribute mainly to Indianapolis, Louisville and Cincinnati. We also do business with other companies in between these metropolitan areas. At Enqvist Int. , our products are sold to other businesses that use our equipment in their offices as well at to retailers for resale. We have offices in all three major cities that set up sales with possible clients. It is important that all three locations share common information with each other as well as with the plant in New Albany to make sure that there will be enough equipment to meet the demand for those cities as well as the surrounding areas. A close eye is always kept on inventory at Enqvist Int. as we pride ourselves in having what consumers want when they want it. Management of this inventory is currently done by hand at the plant in New Albany before the products are shipped to their designated location. In the following pages of this white paper I will present to you the current situation of Enqvist Int. in the IT fields of software, databases and telecommunications. After discussing how we currently use these technologies I will follow up with some developments that can be made in each field to improve the way we do business. After discussing these issues I will give my recommendations on what I think the appropriate action would be to increase the productivity of Enqvist Int. I will conclude with what we can hope to expect from IT in the future. Scope of Situation in Business Management I have been working with an IT Specialist from Cisco. com discussing with him the alternatives of the way we are currently using IT in our company. He has been giving me suggestions along the way with what to offer you in this white paper. Again, I will focus on three major areas, software, databases and telecommunication. At the present time Enqvist Int. does not have any particular software suite common to the three major offices. All three locations have access to the Internet and internally in the three organizations there is access to an Intranet. Product inventory is kept by hand with the information being stored on a hard drive in computers. There are relatively few computers on hand at the plant in New Albany while each employee has their own workstation at each of the three metropolitan locations. According to my IS source, we have an array of options for improving out software condition. In today†s IT world, the trend in software is away from custom design programs and towards of the shelf software suites that are user friendly to our employees. The trend is leaning away from procedural and machine specific programming and towards specific business application uses. Speaking in terms of productivity, we can upgrade from our current software to software that will increase productivity. To continue doing business as usual we need to have a software suite that has the major types of software already installed and ready to use. Remember that we will need a system that meets our requirements of how we do business. Some of the basic software necessary will be a Web browser, e-mail, desktop publishing and word processing. These are all included in several suites such as Microsoft 2000. For example, 2000 has several business specific applications like Word and Excel just to name a couple. These applications can help keep track of our inventory as well as the product schedule of what we will be running on the production line at the plant. E-mail and other forms of virtual groupware will help increase communications between employees at all locations. Another alternative would be to implement a new operating system into the organization to meet our increasing software needs and requirements. An operating system is an integrated system of programs and software that manages the operations of computers. It controls the inputs/outputs and storage of information. In our case the primary reasoning behind an operating system would be to maximize productivity in a more efficient manner. An operating system has four major characteristics that help this process; User Interface, Resource Management, File Management and Task Management. These qualities will help Enqvist International†s management team accomplish specific tasks such as checking to see how much inventory is in stock for a particular product. An operating system will also help with basic business management functions such as storing and retrieving customer information. That is an overview of the software standing at Enqvist Int. and what is available for us to implement to improve they was we use software. Implementing this system at all locations of Enqvist Int. will be costly but the benefits derived should offset those costs. Some benefits will include efficient work, easy interaction with other software, reliability, and application specific programs. Enqivst Int. currently has a strong database infrasturcture but there is room for improvement. We currently have three separate databases, one for each metropolitan location. Each location can run several applications to find and configure data needed for themselves or to relay to customers. There is one big step we can take to improve our overall schema of Database Management systems. After consulting with my IS agent, I have discovered a more error free way to keep track of data. Instead of having the three databases scattered throughout the company, we could have one main database that can be accessed by all three locations. For example, when an employee is running an application to find data on a customer, he will be able to find all data about them in one place instead of going to different databases for pieces of information. A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer programs that control the creation, maintenance and use of data. This DBMS will consolidate records previously stored in separate files into a common file. The benefits of this include the ability for ad hoc queries. These are unique unscheduled information requests from the DBMS, easily capable if we have the newest innovations in DBMS. Forming one main database will also reduce redundant data and errors about those data. For example when information is stored in separate files you need to change customer information in all areas, this problem is eliminated with what I am offering, once you change the information in one area it is automatically done in every aspect of that customer. This will be favorable for Enqvist Int. because customer information will always be up to date. We will have all our entities kept together with the proper attributes to those entities easily accessible to our employees. DBMS will also allow us to build new applications to apply to the way we do business. For example, we will have all of our customer information in one area as well as information on suppliers to the plant in New Albany. DBMS will improve our efficiency and possibly help Enqvist Int. expand to new markets. There are four major benefits we can receive from DBMS. They are: Database Development, Data Interrogation, Data Maintenance, and Application Development. These benefits will help Enqvist Int. keep track of data about the business as well as being able to interrogate the data to be displayed in forms desired by our end users and employees. All this is available just by sharing a common database. The overall organization will be better informed about company data to provide better quaility decision making. There are issues to consider before changing our database infrastructure. We know that this system is able to update the database to reflect new transactions but we also need a DBMS that is reliable, secure and has a large capacity as we are a growing company. Determining who has access to what information in the database will be an important decision that will be made by upper management. Enqvist Int. employees currently have accessibility to a local area network (LAN) within the organization they work for depending on the city. Employees at the three respective stores have all their computers wired together within the office. While this has enabled the employees to communicate with each other and retrieve information about their office transactions, it does not allow them to communicate and have access with possibly needed information from the other two stores. We already have the basic components needed to improve our telecommunications network. We have the computer terminals and processors and the control software to manage the functions for which we use telecommunication. We could however take advantage of a more powerful channel over which our date is transmitted and received. We could also have this channel run fiber optic lines to connect the organizations three LANs creating a Wide Are Network (WAN). A WAN allows connection for large geographical areas, perfect for our situation. We could also form a VPN but our locations are close enough to form a WAN. Implementing a WAN will enable managers, end users, employees and workgroups to electronically exchange data and information from any of three stores with anyone in the company. This will increase collaboration between employees but can be costly. However, the benefits are incredible. Office workers will still be connected internally but also with all other offices including the plant in New Albany. By having all the offices connected to the production plant, employees will no longer have to send e-mails to find out information regarding product inventory or when shipments are being sent and arrived at their location. This takes time and may possibly cost us customers who will look elsewhere. With a WAN, employees could have access to this and other information to use in increasing customer service, another issue associated with business management. The speed and connectivity allowed through a WAN are just a few of the benefits that can be received from implementing one. Managers will have to take some things into consideration when implementing a WAN. With information so accessible to employees we must make sure it is secure so no one else can hack into our network. There are also the issues of who in the company can see and use what information. Employees at all locations are now able to work together on team projects and connect to the plant to check product information but their accessibility will have to have some end. Only office managers and management members above them should have access to company information such as income statements kept on our software programs and total operating cost or per unit costs, other important issues in business management. Once these rules are set, a WAN can increase our company productivity greatly. After informing you on the current situation that Enqvist Int. egarding Information Technology, I will now relay some suggestions that I feel can help this company improve and grow. Working with my IS consultant has helped me tell you the possible ways we can improve the current way we use IT at Enqvist Int. I feel that we could increase productivity to its maximum by using an operating system as our software suite. We could use this system to keep track on product inventory so that fewer errors occur in calculating inventory. Another advantage to Enqvist Int. from an operating system is that our employees will have access to user friendly, application specific business programs. I also feel that we should combine our organizations databases into one common database accessible to our end users. Keeping customer information as well as information on employees and data about the plant in New Albany will help our employees work better to improve customer service. A DBMS also reduces errors that may be in our data. All employees will see that same thing when they look up a common file where as when the information was stored separately two different users might see two different descriptions for the same customer. In reference to our telecommunications network, I think I already made my recommendation known in the scope of this white paper. I feel that implementing a WAN to connect our organization three current LANs will help Enqvist Int. improve in many areas by collaborating with each other. Connecting them with fiber optic lines will increase the speed at which this can be done. It will help us overcome geographical barriers and possibly expand to new markets. The recommendations made to you in this white paper won†t come cheap to Enqvist Int. ut I feel that the benefits we can receive from doing so will outweigh these costs and in time pay for themselves in increased employee productivity. Enqvist Int. has shown in the past that we can survive in our highly competitive market but to stay that way we need to improve our IT situation. By following some or all of the recommendations made to you Enqvist Int. will likely continue to thrive into the future with the help of IT. It seems as if the Information Technology world is changing everyday, which it is. By improving our IT infrastructure as mentioned in this paper, we will reap the benefits of what IT can do for business today. We can only wait and see what IT will have in store for us into the future, creating new innovating ways to manage data and help with business needs. It is likely that the IT tools we have today will be compatible with what will happen in to future thus allowing us to take advantage of those changes in IT. Into the future I think we should also start an Internet site to try in increase sales by expanding our market and also to add advertising. I know that the managers at Enqvist Int. ave been thinking on this for awhile now and with the help of my IS consultant, we could implement it relatively soon. Something that we could see in the future of IT is increased voice recognition. It is already possible for users to talk over the Internet to each other and hear each other. Something that we can look forward to in our computers is their increased voice recognition. We will be able to talk to our computers to accomplish tasks hands free. The computer may actually be able to communicate back with us in the future making working a computer easier and more productive than ever. Also in the future of IT we can expect to see increase in flexibility regarding what IT can do with increased power. This flexibility will open an expanding range of IT applications that help business processes. We will also experience increasing bandwidth making connection over networks faster and more reliable to access information. The future still remains to be seen but with IT, the possibilities are endless, I have only named a few. From writing this White Paper I learned that it is essential for today†s businesses to have IT has a backbone of their operations. To be competitive in today†s market, businesses need to have a strong IT infrastructure to assist them in running their organization. I also strengthened my understanding of how IT can help businesses expand and grow by making them accessible all over the world via the Internet. They can do business now with people anywhere but this is also something that many companies are having trouble doing today. However, I understand that by using IT to help you manage you information and to create the ability to work and collaborate together, it can help to improve your business and now I realize how this works a lot more in depth.

Preferred language style Essay

Hypoglycemia is a condition in which the glucose level present in the blood drops to a level below the normal range. It can develop both in type 1 diabetes mellitus and type II diabetes mellitus. Frequently, this is a very severe health issue in diabetics and has severe effects. The physician may be able to identify and treat diabetic ketoacidosis and diabetic non-ketotic coma early, but hypoglycemia turns out to be a serious problem as it is often not recognized in diabetes. In certain cases, hypoglycemia occurs suddenly, and by the time one recognizes that they are hypoglycemic; it may be too late to take control of the situation. If hypoglycemia is left untreated for a long time, especially in a diabetic, the chances of permanent brain damage are very high. Hypoglycemia is also associated with several cardiovascular disorders such as heart attacks, stroke, cardiac failure and arrhythmias, myocardial ischemia, etc. In elders, the risk of losing consciousness and developing seizures is especially high. Associated injuries that develop during the hypoglycemic-associated complications such fractures, injuries to the legs, etc, may be especially problematic to heal in diabetics. Hypoglycemia in elders is responsible for causing visual and coordination problems. In elders, hypoglycemic symptoms are often perceived as symptoms of ischemia, both by the relatives and the healthcare professionals. This difficulty in recognizing the symptoms worsens the outcome of the disorder. As age increases, the symptoms of hypoglycemia become less severe, and are often altered by the addition of certain atypical symptoms and the absence of the regular ones. In younger individuals, physical symptoms of hypoglycemia develop earlier than that compared to loss of cognitive functions. Hence, the individual may have sufficient time to treat the condition. Besides, if the glucose levels in the blood fall to a very low level, it cannot be restored to normal by administering glucose orally. Usually a close relative or the spouse can recognize the symptoms of hypoglycemia by noting that the patient looks at a distance or demonstrates several other symptoms such as repeated blinking, loss of speaking skills, deep breathing, aggressiveness, etc. It may be considered that individuals with greater control over their diabetes are also in good control of hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia can occur during fasting and even after consumption of food (as a reactionary mechanism). Hypoglycemia can occur following several drug therapies such as along with steroids, beta-blockers, ethanol, insulin, disopyramide, etc. Hypoglycemia can evidently lead to neuroglycemia. Although, 50 mg/dl of blood is considered to be hypoglycemia, symptoms are produced at 40 mg/dl, and coma and seizures frequently occur at 20 mg/dl. As hypoglycemia can occur frequently and has a high rate of mortality as well as morbidity, the importance of identifying and treating it should be explained to the patient and his/her relatives. The individual should be warned of the symptoms that could develop during the mild (confusion, light-headedness, etc), moderate (headache, behavior alternations, etc) and serious (seizures, coma, unconsciousness) stages of hypoglycemia. The individual should also be told of the situations in which hypoglycemia can commonly develop such as excessive consumption of anti-diabetic medications, excessive use of insulin, reduced consumption of foods, additional exercises or physical activity, alcohol consumption, etc. The individual should be advsied of the hypoglycemic symptoms that can develop during sleep (such as sweating, nightmare, hunger, etc). Thus it can be seen that hypoglycemia is a frequent complication especially in diabetes. It should be adequately controlled utilizing some simple precautions. In case the individual develops hypoglycemia, immediate recognition and emergency treatment is essential in order to prevent the development of neuroglycemia and serious complications like permanent brain damage. References: Boyle, P. J. (2000). Hypoglycemia, In. Leahy, N. L. , Clark, N. G. , and Cefalu, W. T. (Ed. ), Medical Management of Diabetes Mellitus, New York: Marcel-Dekher. Mangione, R. A. (1996). Recognition and Management of Hypoglycemia, Retrieved 14 Janaury, 2007, from US Pharmcist Web site: http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/28/12/2948

Ultrahigh Bypass Ratio Propulsion Systems Studied

celerate a large mass of air by a small amount than to accelerate a small mass of air by a large amount. In a turbofan jet engine, the airflow rate that bypasses the engine core divided by the airflow rate that travels through the core is called the bypass ratio. The bypass ratio, or BPR, is one of the key indicators of turbofan engine efficiency. The desire for better fuel efficiency has resulted in the evolution of commercial aircraft gas turbine engines from early turbojets (BPR=0), to low bypass ratio, first generation turbofans (BPR=1-2), to today's high bypass ratio turbofans (BPR=5-10).Now, ultrahigh bypass ratio (UHB) turbofans (BPR=10-20) are being designed for a next-generation, intracontinental commercial aircraft. This aircraft could enter service as early as 2020. The Intercenter Systems Analysis Team, consisting of systems engineers from Glenn and Langley Research Centers, conducted an analytical feasibility study of UHB turbofans for NASA's Fundamental Aeronautics Prog ram. With a little math, it can be shown that fuel efficiency increases along with BPR.The engine core, however, has a limited supply of power available to propel the bypass air stream, so it can be difficult to simply increase BPR arbitrarily. One path to UHB engines and better efficiency is to reduce the fan's pressure ratio, which lowers the fan's power requirement and allows higher BPRs. Our analysis team designed nine notional UHB propulsion systems for this new aircraft along a parametric design sweep of fan pressure ratio. Using advanced computational tools, these propulsion systems were ana

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COM 5 informal report - Essay Example We all were exceedingly happy and anxious to board the plane to Japan. We woke up early that morning and were well prepared to leave United States to Japan. We boarded the plane, Japanese Airline, at 7oclock in the morning on 2nd August and took 8 hours to Japan. At the plane, the stewards and hostesses were exceptionally courteous and hospitable. We were served with drinks and snacks by the stewards and hostesses. On arrival, we were welcomed by airline staff members and taken to the hotel rooms where we would spend the night. The next morning we visited Mitsubishi Motor Company where we interviewed several employees and observed their conduct. Through my interview with Hiroshima Kumamoto, I noted that Japanese companies appraise upholding harmony and excellent reputation with customers and the community in general. Culturally Japan values patience, politeness, hard work, honesty, affiliation and team work. Different cultural settings have different ways of communicating. In reference to Locker and Kiensler (2010), Japanese treasure sitting in silence and calmness (p. 132). They regard United States propensity to squirm and shift as a signal of spiritual and mental balance deficiency. Audiences and interviewers react negatively to restlessness. Japanese use body language to indicate attributes such as respect, confidence, agreement, interest and emotional participation. Moreover, I established that Japanese employees take pleasure in a paternalistic association with their employers and work for one company for all their life. This opposes the Western Companies who try to motivate their workers to maintain the same job. The next day we visited Toyota Motor Company where we established that, In Japan, employee promotion is not based on merit (Locker & Kiensler, 2010, p. 135). This is in contrast to the western primary basis of promoting workers. An employee’s age is the most essential

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The Desighn evenet managment - Assignment Example Organization of events strongly affects society as a whole. In some countries, this is a serious industry, bringing the state many billions in taxes. You can use it to attract a lot of tourists (such as carnivals in Rio de Janeiro or Venice is visited by hundreds of thousands of people), it becomes a significant source of income for local budgets. Conferences and exhibitions helps the emergence of business contacts and thus spur economic development. has long been an integral part of other economic sectors: hospitality, tourism, show business; some of the functions on the organization of activities was assigned to the sales offices, professional associations (Supovitz, 2005, p.45). This hindered the development of event-management as a distinct form of activity. Now in organizing activities were professional associations, there are specialized literature, certification programs in this area can get a higher education. Gradually the organization of events is becoming recognized industry with its technology, market players, legends and traditions. One of the factors that affect the strategic decision-making is opportunity cost. This is because when someone makes a choice, they will lose the chance of making another choice. For instance if a company decides to make advertisement on the radio, they may not have the opportunity of making another advertisement on the television because of budgetary restrictions. If a company asks the sales staff to look for new clients, they may as well forget about serving the existing customers (Boag & Cuskelly, 2011, p.67). Opportunity cost also affected the final event design pitch because it was the best option so far. Another factor that affects strategic decision-making is the effect on resources. When companies compute their profit benefit from probable decision, they must also consider the general impact on production, human resources, sales and the staff. If a certain product within the

Sampson and Laub's Life Course Perspective Theory Essay

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Environmental Science DB3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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The Role of Accounting on Business and Our Society Research Paper

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Close Reading about Poem - Essay Example . The opening of the poem, â€Å"my heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains† indicate that the mood of song is mellow (Keates Stanza 1 line 1). The author is trying to achieve the nightingale’s pure realm and escape from the troubles and darkness of the world through his drink. The nightingales’ voice sends him into a trance making him cheery and unable to focus on anything else. This is evident when he says, â€Å"Singest of summer in full-throated ease† (Keates Stanza 1 Line 10). His view of the world as a dark place is a product of his health problems and the fact that he became an orphan in his early teenage years and forced by circumstances to care for his sick brother. In as much as he is drunk, his tone is sober and enlightened. The nightingales’ songs turn his sorrow to joy and pain to pleasure. He imagines smelling flowers and drinking wine in the green country in the suns warmth and becoming one with the nightingale, â€Å"Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget† (Stanza 3 line 1). This shows his longing of a lively, enjoyable world. He comes to his senses in the sixth stanza when the reality of his mortality hits him hard. He is attracted to the nightingales’ song and realizes that the bird is incapable of experiencing pain and comprehending the pain of death. To him the bird is immortal because many people transverse all generations and history have heard the nightingale sing. When the nightingale flies off, the speaker feels lonely and disappointed. He feels he lacks the freedom of the nightingales and yearns to come to such freedom and usefulness. Perhaps death is his release (Cunningham & Reich & Fichner 127). Finally, in understanding this poem it is noteworthy to mention that the poet composed this poem after the demise of his brother. The poem expresses the reality of the duality of human experiences using imagery and melancholy. The different

Writing suggestions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Writing suggestions - Essay Example Therefore, the challenge of every young adult like me is to find out for himself what good a particular group can bring him and how he can use it in his life. Perhaps, the most influential group I have ever been a part of has always been my family. My family is a big one, an extended family that somehow dictated my every decision even which school I should go to, or which woman I should marry, or which people I should not make friends with, and even which political view I should adopt. My aunts and uncles in both my mother and father sides were highly opinionated people and extremely argumentative too, and sometimes even to the point of being overly critical. Perhaps, it is because they are professionals – lawyers, professors, doctors, and engineers. Since my family values respect for the elderly and since I knew that these people are used to others agreeing with their opinion, I have learned how to be humble, passive and submissive whenever I encountered my older family membe rs. It was necessary for me to say â€Å"yes† to them whenever they asked me to do an errand or whenever they gave me some advice on anything – even if it was ridiculous. Another group to which I believe I have particularly belonged for a long time is my group of friends at my high school, with whom I still communicate until now. They have mostly gone to other universities but they have been the most supportive to me during my high school years. Whereas my family only severely criticized me whenever I did poorly on any particularly subject in high school, my friends then distracted me from my frustrations and disappointments with my family. Had I not paid attention to their distractions and had I only focused on the destructive criticisms, I would be taking drugs now. Nevertheless, thanks to my friends in high school – they got me into sports and backpacking. At least, my mind had earned itself a well-deserved break from the constant nagging of my self-righteous family members. With my high school group of friends, there were only just two easy ways to adapt – to play sports and to be myself. Basketball and soccer were as easy to me as having breakfast in the morning so it was not much of a challenge. Ironically, being myself was harder for I grew up in a family where I had to please everyone to the point of assuming a whole new different character. Nevertheless, my family is obviously a more superior group to my high school friends in terms of rules. Another group who I believe has influenced me much is my three friends from our neighborhood. I got these three male friends from the neighborhood who are almost the same age with me and who are also into sports. These three young men are actually extremely dependent on their very supportive parents to the point of being spoiled. In fact, they belong to this group of people who just want to spend their time away, even waste it, thinking they got their parents to back them up all the ti me. They would usually treat me to some coffee, Gatorade or some Caesar’s salad, as they are all health buffs. Actually, I have nothing to do except to remain below their financial level – that is the only silent requirement for the group. They are three proud and egoistic men who think that no one in this world can equal them. Nevertheless, these three people taught me confidence, and taught me that I had my own free will all along. Somehow, I also needed this to balance the pressure that my family would sometimes impose on me. Although these three young men are not professionals yet just like my aunts and uncles, I believe they are superior in terms of mental and emotional freedom. Society and rules silently control my family members and govern their emotions and reactions, while my three friends are indifferent to a

Sex Difference in Evolutionary Psychology Essay Example for Free

Sex Difference in Evolutionary Psychology Essay Disclosing human behaviour has initiated study and research from a capacious range of disciplines, effectuating varied perspectives on human behaviour. Essentialist or social constructionist perspective has been considered by psychologists to examine the origin of sex differences (Anselmi Law, 1998). Essentialism articulates that sex differences commence from inducements that are intrinsic in human beings, and present itself as an alternative meta-theory to conventional sociology. The discrepancy in sex differences across social contexts is considered by social constructionist view-point, understood by the interpretation of the sexes amidst specific contexts. Highly contrasting theories emanate when apprehending factors responsible for human sex-linked behaviour, thus making it strenuous to critic the factors that essentially manipulate and manage behaviour (Jureidini Poole 2000). Hence, the current essay provides a cogent explanatory framework for understanding the causation of sex differences, anchored primarily from evolutionary psychology, with criticisms reported against its concepts on sex differences. Sexuality is sexual behaviour, epitomized as the inherent behavioural predispositions, augmenting the probability of passing genes into future progeny (Buss, 1989). Human mate selection has generated a substantial degree of research, instilling a pronounce degree of sexual differentiation between the characteristics that men and women desire in potential mates (Buss, 1989; Buss Barnes, 1986). The division of labour (Durkheim, 1964) observed men inclined to be stereotyped and envisaged as bread winners, with the role of child carers and nurturers stereotyped as women, patriarchy acknowledged as the custom with aggressive nature expected from men, and nurturing and passive nature expected from women (Jureidini Poole, 2001). Males endeavoured to reproduce and desired the need to be paternal, and have evolved high risk high stakes game strategy to attract mates (Miller, 2000). Women are impulsively attracted to males with the ability to protect and provide for her and her children (Zajdow, 2002). Buss’s (Buss et al., 1990) remarkable cross- cultural study found that males are inclined to yield mates with physical attractiveness and youth, while women desire mates with more financial power. Evolutionary psychologists, however, have dedicated little attention to the synergy between the social and cultural environment quality. Social structural perspectives theorize the motive of mate selection mirror peoples effort to make the most of their utilities with respect to mating choices. Marriage is typified as functioning between utility-amplifying women and men to reach stability with economic exchanges (Becker, 1976), implying that differences in mate selection are accountable due to lucid economic arrangements than from the perspective of inherited predispositions (Tattersall, 1998). Eagly and Wood (1999), criticizing the evolutionary perspective, concluded that mate preferences are shaped by the society in which we live today, and conflicting assignment of role portrayed due to sexual division of labor. Potential accounts for these unlike views include the circumstance of each psychologist. Buss, a male evolutionary psychologist, grew up with an influential background in beliefs that behaviour is a result of how one adapts to their environment. Eagly and Wood elucidate the results contradictorily possibly because they are both females who credit strongly in equality for all, and therefore observe the differences in preferences as a consequence of the principles of today’s society; a key example being the preferred age of females at marriage, affected by a more career-oriented female than in earlier times. The concept that sexuality is learned is notably provided by sociologists. Studies amid animal primates exhibit abnormal sexual behaviour upon segregation of young apes from monitoring sexual behaviour. Subsequently, the affected ape will acquire sexual behaviour to relatively normal level upon remedial socialisation (the ability to inspect sexuality of other) (Jureidini Poole 2001). In cultures such as the ‘Mehinaku’ of Brazil, the men engage in limited sexual activity due to the conception of sexual activity as disgusting (Gregor, 1985). Sociologists have discovered that attractive features vary across cultures (Jureidini Poole 2002). Deviations from the Darwinian Theory have been observed in modern western culture, with the contemporary media depicting thin and lean body types of women body structures as appealing (Vida 1996). Gender differences in aggression are eminently variable. From an evolutionary  viewpoint, aggression can be suitable in a number of situations, for animals (Archer, 1988), and human beings (Buss Shackelford, 1997). The utility of aggression was to assign individuals over their accessible home range so as to secure the most advantageous utilization of a region and its nutrients (Lorenz, 1966). Such a functional perspective on aggression has been abdicated, with modern consensus that neither humans nor other animals are furnished with the aggressive instinct, and contemplated to be context-dependent (Buss Shackelford, 1997). With variations in society, the occurrence of aggression between males and females may alter. Increased use of direct and physical means of aggression among girls, have shown to occur in the last decade (Huesmann et al. 1998). One probable account is, perplexingly, the progress of the dignity of women in society. Human memory evolved because it enhanced fitness in specific environments of evolutionary adaptedness (Tooby Cosmides, 1992), receptive to subject relevant to evolutionary ï ¬ tness. Words reckoned for survival relevance in scenarios were subsequently retained at notably higher rates than words rated for relevance in a range of control scenario conditions (Nairne Pandeirada, 2008). Sex differences in spatial abilities may possibly have an evolutionary basis, with suggested that the division of labor consistently detected in hunter-gatherer societies may have led to remarkable foraging-related cognitive specializations of the sexes (Sherry et al, 1992; Silverman Eals, 1992). Men typically surpass women on tasks considered to be related to hunting skills (e.g., navigation), while women typically show a lead on tasks requiring memory for objects accumulated in fixed locales (Voyer et al., 2007). Males are inclined to excel in tests of mathematical reasoning than females (Kimura, 19 99). Although mathematical abilities may not have primary selective demands in the evolutionary past, that ability may be a by-product of spatial ability (Geary, 1996). The current essay explained certain concepts of sex differences chiefly from the perception of evolutionary psychology. Some limitations exposed in some arguments, for example the inference on aggressive behaviour in modern times cannot be satisfactory annotated by social constructionist views, while evolutionary views are more credible. As social beings, our surroundings and  cultures will play a crucial role when flourishing our identity, whether this affects us biologically when evolving. Hence it is vital to incur comprehensions from many perspectives and deem the supremacy of evolution, the quagmire of social constructions and the impact of environment when determining sex differences in human beings.

School Based Management And School Changes Education Essay

School Based Management And School Changes Education Essay Abstract For more than three decades, School-Based Management (SBM) has become a global movement towards the quality of education. The ultimate goal of implementing SBM was to enhance quality of education in general and more particularly for better school improvement and increased student achievement. This article addresses the views of school stakeholders in exploring the association between SBM policy and school changes. The paper is on the basis of mixed-methods research design, combining quantitative and qualitative dimensions of research. The quantitative research design was applied through an empirical survey between February and June 2012, involving 318 respondents from 18 urban and sub-urban schools of Ngada, Flores, Indonesia. In addition to the survey, personal in-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted, followed by documentary analyses. Keywords School-based management, school changes, Indonesia, Flores Introduction For more than three decades, School-Based Management (SBM) has become a global movement towards the quality of education. The ultimate goal of implementing SBM was to enhance quality of education in general and more particularly for better school improvements and student achievements. Research in the last twenty years affirm how SBM policy and programs have been evident to be effective for the improvement of schools and student learning outcomes (Bandur Gamage, 2009; Bergman, 1992; Brown Cooper, 2000; Caldwell, 2005; Dempster, 2000; Gamage, 2006, 1998; Kuehn, 1996; Odden Wohlstetter, 1995; ONeil, 1995; Sharpe, 1996). Several studies have also consistently revealed a positive association between higher parental and/or community involvement and improved student achievement resulting from implementing effective SBM (Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1994; Sheldon Voorhis, 2004; Williams, Harold, Robertson, Southworth, 1997). For instance, on the basis of research conducted in the Victorian state schools system, involving 75 interviews, Gamage (1998: 313) found that healthier teaching and learning environments as well as improvement of student achievement could be achieved by the fact that the parents and teachers who are the closest to the students have formed a partnership and both parties are represented in the governing body with accountability. Similarly, Sheldon and Voorhis (2004: 127) affirm that many researchers have supported the idea of how community and parental involvement can improve schools and the quality of education that the children achieved as well as the academic achievement of students. Several researchers also found how school-based management is associated with partnership in school decision-makings (Bandur, 2012; Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1998). For instance, Blank (2004: 62) asserts that schools can promote improvements in student learning by building relationships between schools and diverse community entities. He then clarifies that building partnerships that link school, family, and community is intimately connected to student achievement because linking schools and community resources leads to providing services and support that address various needs of the students. Partnership can also provide learning opportunities that enhance young peoples social, emotional, and physical development as well as academic skills. School changes in this article are related to: (1) how SBM policy has changed the absolute authority figure of school principals for school decision-makings; (2) how SBM policy encourage higher participation of parents and other school communities in schools; (3) how SBM policy change the fashion of financial management in schools; (4) how SBM policy create partnership in decision-making processes; and (5) how SBM has led to better teaching and learning environments. In the study, the general research questions were formulated as what are the results of implementing SBM policies and programs in schools as perceived by the school stakeholders? What is School-Based Management? School-Based Management (SBM) is a generic term in a response to change the centralistic and bureaucratic fashions of public school system toward more decentralized and democratic model. The term was born in mid-1960s in Australia after a public debate at the Australian National University, Canberra to choose a model of public school system that serve better students. Under the SBM scheme, power and authority in decision-making are shifted from governments to individual schools for better school improvement and increased student achievement. Later, the reform has appeared worldwide under various terms site-based management, site-based decision making, school-based decision making, school-based governance, shared decision making, and even school-based initiatives. However, even though these terms represent the widespread education reform agenda, they vary slightly in meaning, particularly to the extent whether authority and responsibility are devolved to school councils or whether th e councils are mandatory or not by laws and regulations. In this sense, similar to the SBM reforms in Chicago, USA and Victoria, Australia, Indonesian SBM model is mandatory, which means that all Indonesian public schools are compulsorily implementing SBM policy and programs on the basis of Law 20/2003 on National Education System and Government Regulation No.66/2010. Based on research conducted in Victoria, the ACT and NSW, and other countries, Gamage (1996: 65) defines SBM as a pragmatic approach to a formal alteration of the bureaucratic model of school administration with a more democratic structure. It identifies the individual school as the primary unit of improvement relying on the redistribution of decision-making authority through which improvements in a school are stimulated and sustained. In this context, the focus on facilitating improvements in the individual school as the key to successful educational reform strategies has a good deal of public appeal and other research support (Gamage Zajda, 2005; Gamage, 2003; Whitty, Power Halpin, 1998; Cheng, 1996; Odden Wohlstetter, 1995). Marburger (1991: 25-26) considers SBM as an approach in which decisions that are traditionally made by a superintendent are now being made by the school council comprising of the principal, teachers, parents, citizens, and the students. Likewise, Anderson (2006: 223) defines SBM as the shifting of decision-making authority from the district office to individual schools. Many scholars also affirm that the movement towards SBM is often assumed as the approach to serve students better by improving the school practices in meeting the diverse expectations of the stakeholders in a changing environment towards increasing student performance and achievements (Cheng Mok, 2007; Anderson, 2006; Caldwell, 2005; Gamage Zajda, 2005; Gamage Sooksomchitra, 2004; Muijs and Harris, et. al, 2004; Sheldon Voorhis, 2004; Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1998, 1994). Gamage (1996: 21-22) has proposed a revised theory of SBM based on twenty years of experience in the Australian SBM systems. In the revised theory, he has devised seven assumptions, on which to base a more realistic application of SBM. The first assumption is that a school council shall consist of all relevant stakeholders such as the principal or the head teacher and the representatives of staff (both teaching and non-teaching), parents, local community, and in the case of secondary schools, students. The representatives of the staff, parents, and students are expected to be elected by the relevant constituencies, whereas the community representatives are to be nominated by the other elected members and the school leader. The second assumption is that the devolution or transfer of both authority and responsibility needs to be affected by a legislative enactment. This approach will transform the former advisory body to a democratic governing body. The third assumption is the heavy reliance on the voluntary participation of the parents, community, and student representatives in the process of policy formulation in governing the school. It is believed that the school stakeholders are motivated and dedicated to developing quality schools because of the genuine transfer of authority and responsibility. The fourth assumption is that the lay councilors, with appropriate induction and training, will acquire sufficient knowledge to function as equal partners. The knowledge and experience of the lay-members who come from fields other than education are relevant and useful to the educational enterprise in order that the needs of contemporary schools are met. The fifth assumption is that because of de-zoning, the schools need to function in an interesting and effective mode that can improve the image of the school in a similar way to the business reputation of a private/public enterprise. Such an image will help attract high levels of school enrolments. The sixth assumption is that SBM would be cost effective because the ownership of the policies and higher levels of commitment leads to minimization of costs and better utilization of limited resources. More resources would also be available as a result of minimizing the size of the educational bureaucracy, as well as drawing on previously untapped resources from the school community. The last assumption is that stricter control needs to be enforced by the centre to ensure accountability for the finances placed at the disposal of the school in conformity with the Ministerial/Departmental Guidelines relating to the operation of school councils. The principal is made accountable to the governing body and through it to the states education authorities, as well as to the school community. Submissions of regular progress reports to the governing body and annual reports to other relevant authorities and the school community are required. Decentralization and SBM in Indonesia Prior to the implementation of School-Based Management (SBM) in Indonesia, its system of education was highly centralized. Bjork (2003: 193) affirms that by the end of the twentieth century, Indonesia was among the most highly centralized nations in the world. However, the real transformation with the concept of decentralization commenced in May 1998, when there was a radical political movement towards decentralization (Aspinall Fealy, 2003; Bangay, 2005; Bjork, 2006; Guess, 2005; Raihani, 2007). In terms of successful movements towards decentralization, Guess (2005: 220) claims that the Indonesian big bang devolution program has been described as one of the fastest and most comprehensive decentralization initiatives ever attempted by any country in the region. The decentralized system led to the implementation of educational decentralization through School-Based Management (SBM) which has been considered as a milestone in developing a better quality of national education (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2004, 2002). For these reasons, on the basis of Law No.25/2000 on National Development Planning (2000-2004), the Indonesian Ministry of National Education, appointed a Komisi Nasional Pendidikan (KNP) or Commission of National Education in February 2001. The KNP worked until December 2001 with responsibilities, among others, to: (1) formulate policy recommendations to have a better quality education; (2) provide inputs to government about educational decentralization. It was expected that the work of this Commission would become a basis from which to comprehensively reform Indonesian education. One of the recommendations of the KNP was to develop educational councils at district level and school councils at school level. Thus, developing educational and school councils was one of the educational decentralization policies, aimed at devolving power and authority from central government to schools, resulting in improvement of democratic principles, community participation, equity, as well as accommodation of diverse local interests and needs (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2001: 26). It was believed that local communities are the ones who will understand their own problems and needs better and decided to provide them greater roles and responsibilities in terms of operational decision making on national education policies. For this purpose, the central government embarked on the formation of education councils and school councils in each district of Western Sumatera, Bali, and Eastern Java. On the basis of these trials, the councils were considered strategic in coping with improving the Indonesian national education. Then, Government issued a set of guidelines in relation to the implementation of SBM in 2002 and later revised in 2004 in order to provide mandatory corporate governing body type school councils described as follows: This concrete one-sidedness requires to be channeled politically to become collective action placed by Educational Council located in the district/city and School Council at the level of educational unit (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2002: 1). Further, the Education Act 20/2003 on National Education System strengthened the formation of school councils. In accordance with the involvement of local communities in achieving better quality education, Article 56 of the Act provides that the community members are required to participate in improving the quality of education. In this case, the educational council and school council represent the community, as stated: Community shall take part in the quality improvement of educational services, which include planning, monitoring, and evaluation of educational programs through the Educational Council and School Council (Education Act 20/2003, Article, 56). The Act defines a school council as an independent body established to provide advice, directions and support for personnel, facilities and equipment, and monitoring of a school (Article 56). On the basis of the Act, Government regulated power and authority vested in the school councils, as well as characteristics and formation, membership and structure of a school council. It is clear that authority is devolved to school councils and the councils are empowered to create better quality education in their schools. How SBM Change Schools Currently, SBM has been evident to be effective for the improvement of schools and student learning outcomes (Bandur Gamage, 2009; Bergman, 1992; Brown Cooper, 2000; Caldwell, 2005; Dempster, 2000; Gamage, 2006, 1998; Kuehn, 1996; Odden Wohlstetter, 1995; ONeil, 1995; Sharpe, 1996). More particularly, Odden and Wohlstetter (1995: 32) identified the conditions that promote improved school performance through SBM. They discovered that school stakeholders in the schools in which SBM has been effectively implemented to improve school performance have the authority over budget, personnel, and curriculum. These successful schools implementing SBM have used their new power and authority to introduce changes that directly affect teaching and learning practices. They also found other conditions, including (1) professional development and training opportunities to strengthen teaching, management, and problem-solving skills of teachers and other stakeholders; (2) adequate information to make informed decisions about student performance, parent and community satisfaction, and school resources; and (3) systematic and creative in communicating with parents and the community. Several studies have also consistently revealed a positive association between higher parental and/or community involvement and improved student achievements resulting from implementing effective SBM (Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1994; Sheldon Voorhis, 2004; Williams, Harold, Robertson, Southworth, 1997). For instance, on the basis of research conducted in the Victorian state schools system, involving 75 interviews, Gamage (1998: 313) reports that healthier teaching and learning environments as well as improvements of student achievements could be achieved by the fact that the parents and teachers who are the closest to the students have formed a partnership and both parties are represented in the governing body with accountability. Similarly, Sheldon and Voorhis (2004: 127) affirm that many researchers have supported the idea of how community and parental involvement can improve schools and the quality of education that the children achieved as well as the academic achievements of student s. Several researchers also found how school-based management is associated with partnership (Bandur, 2012; Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1998). For instance, Blank (2004: 62) asserts that schools can promote improvements in student learning by building relationships between schools and diverse community entities. He then clarifies that building partnerships that link school, family, and community is intimately connected to student achievements because linking schools and community resources leads to providing services and support that address various needs of the students. Partnership can also provide learning opportunities that enhance young peoples social, emotional, and physical development as well as academic skills. Research Design and Methods The research design employed in this study was the mixed-methods design. The design has advantages to attain valid and reliable research outcomes as well as to provide specific techniques and strategies by which the researchers are guided in data collection procedures and data analyses (Creswell, 2005; Creswell Clark, 2007). More particularly, this study employed the concurrent triangulation strategy, which primarily aims at using separate quantitative and qualitative research as a means to offset the weaknesses inherent within one method with the strengths of the other method. In this context, the quantitative and qualitative data collection is concurrent, happening in one phase of the research study. The strategy integrates the results of the two methods during the interpretation phase. In the data collection phase of this study, the empirical survey was conducted concurrently with in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and documentary analyses. As the primary goal of condu cting interviews was to seek clarifications and deeper understanding on the issues emerged in the empirical surveys, the results of quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis were combined. Research method is more specific than research design. Research methods are techniques of data collection and analysis, such as a quantitative standardized instrument or a qualitative theme analysis of text data (Creswell, 2005; Creswell Clark, 2007). In this study, the term mixed-methods research means to the research design which has philosophical assumptions to guide the direction of the data collection and analyses. As methods of inquiry, it focuses on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study. For the purpose of quantitative data collection, questionnaire was employed for obtaining close items and scale items related to the objectives of the study. The close items allow the respondents to choose from two or more fixed alternatives, for example, the dichotomous items which provide two alternatives only: yes or no, while the scale is a set of items to which the respondents respond by indicating degrees of agreement or disagreement (Burns, 1994, p. 349). The questionnaire of the study consisted of two major parts. The first main part is about the demographic information of respondents for the purposes of providing descriptive statistics, including: school location, gender of respondents, ages of respondents and their position in schools. The second part is about respondents perspective on the results of implementing School-Based Management (SBM) policy and programs; general functions of communication in schools; the importance of communication for school improvements and student achievements; communication networks in schools; and styles and strategies of communication of school leaders within the SBM framework. For the purposes of qualitative data collection, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used to obtain open-ended information. These techniques of data collection were useful for providing better insight of the research problems. For this reason, the researcher the researcher set up two major steps. The first step dealt wit selected the key informants. Accordingly, fourteen key informants (principals and school council presidents) in seven schools were interviewed personally face to face. In addition, FGDs with seven groups of teachers in the schools were conducted. All interviews were recorded in the digital-tape recording and note-books for checking validity and reliability. Validity and Reliability of the Item Scales Several statisticians (Brace, Kemp, Snelgar, 2006; Manning Munro, 2006) affirm that the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a type of Factor Analysis which is used to explore the possibility of a factor structure underlying the variables. In particular, Manning and Munro (2006) explain the usefulness of PCA to measure the validity of variables. In the context of quantitative research, validity is simply defined as the degree to which it measures what it claims to measure (Manning Munro, 2006; Wiersma Jurs, 2005; Pallant, 2005; Best Kahn, 1998). The results of Principal Component Analysis demonstrate that the factor loadings of all scale items were ranged from .72 to .97 and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) of Sampling Adequacy was statistically significant (Bartletts Test of Sphericity, p = .000) and ranged from .64 to .87. These results clearly indicate a good factorability (Brace, Kemp, Snelgar, 2006, p. 318). Reliability in quantitative research refers to the consistency of the methods, conditions, and results (Manning Munro, 2006; Wiersma Kurs, 2005; Pallant, 2005; Best Kahn, 1998). There are three common ways of testing reliability in quantitative research, namely, test-retest reliability, split-half reliability, and coefficient (Munning Munro, 2006; Pallant, 2005). The test-retest approach is applied when a researcher tests the same set of people on two different occasions and the scores from the first test is correlated with the scores from the second test. In the split-half reliability, a researcher administers questionnaires only once and split the items used to create composite variable into two equivalent halves, followed by creating two composite variables from these two sets and correlate them. For the purpose of this study, the coefficient alpha (also known as Cronbachs alpha) was applied. The values of coefficient alpha above .70 are considered to represent acceptable reliability, above .80 good reliability, and above .90 to represent excellent reliability. The values of coefficient alpha of this instrument ranged from .82 to .95, indicating good and excellent reliability (Manning Munro, 2006, p.25). Results and Discussions Demographic Information In the study, several variables in relation to demographic information were analyzed for providing the general background of respondents. These include location, genders, qualification of formal education, positions in schools, and ages of respondents. The majority of respondents (57%) were located in district town schools of Ngada, while 43% of them were from village schools located in Golewa Sub-district area. Then, the majority of respondents (53%) were male, while 47% of them were female. Meanwhile, most of respondents (39%) graduated from bachelor degrees, while 36% of them graduated from diploma educational institutions. Meanwhile, 25% of respondents had the high school teacher training education or senior high school. The biggest percentage (38%) of respondents in the empirical survey was parents, followed by teachers and school council members (26% and 24% respectively). Other respondents were administrative staff (9%) and principals in seven schools (2%). Most of the respondents (40%, N=318) were between 41 and 50 years old. Twenty-six of them were between 31 and 40 years old, while small percentages of respondents were between 51-60 and 20-30 years old (20% and 14% respectively). Opinion on the Current Practice of SBM Policy In Indonesia, the policy in decentralized education system through School-Based Management (SBM) was actually the initiatives made by the Central government in Jakarta. Fortunately, the initiative was strongly supported by international donor agencies. In Flores, Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) provided assistance for school stakeholders in the areas of SBM policies and programs, including the devolution of authority and responsibility from governments to school councils in terms of building new schools, building renovation, library, school text books, school curriculum, school development planning, monitoring anf evaluation, school operational grants, as well as how joyful teaching and learning is linked to active participation of the whole school community members. An analysis was made in this study to find out the overall impression of school stakeholders on the current implementation of SBM policies and programs. As shown in Table 1, all respondents in th e empirical survey perceived the implementation of School-Based Management (SBM) either adequate (5%), good (46%) or excellent (48%). This implies that SBM policies and programs in these schools were applicable. Table 1 Opinion on the current practice of SBM Valid Item Frequency Valid Percent Unsatisfactory Adequate Good Excellent 0 17 147 154 0 5.3 46.2 48.4 Total 318 100.0 An effort was also made to find out whether there was statistically significant difference in terms of the school stakeholders opinion in terms of the implementation of SBM. As presented in Table 2, there was no statistically significant difference (Chi-sq =59, N = 318, p = .74) with the 96% of respondents who are working in schools (teachers, administrative staff and school principals) who either stated good or excellent on the implementation of SBM, compared with 94% of respondents (school council members and parents) who stated the same. Table 2 Opinion on the implementation of SBM by position of respondents in school NewPosition * Opinion on the Implementation of SBM Crosstabulation Opinion on the Implementation of SBM Total Adequate Good Excellent New Position 1* Count 5 56 60 121 % within NewPosition 4.1% 46.3% 49.6% 100.0% 2** Count 12 91 94 197 % within NewPosition 6.1% 46.2% 47.7% 100.0% Total Count 17 147 154 318 % within NewPosition 5.3% 46.2% 48.4% 100.0% * = Teacher, administrative staff, principal ** = School council members and parents Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square .593a 2 .744 Likelihood Ratio .612 2 .736 Linear-by-Linear Association .311 1 .577 N of Valid Cases 318 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.47. How SBM Change the Authority on School Decision-Makings Since the implementation of SBM, authority in decision-making is vested from governments to school level decision-makers. For this purpose, each Indonesian school has established school councils for decision-making processes. In this research, it was necessary to find out how the school stakeholders considered the authority in decision-making after the implementation of SBM. Table 3 SBM and decision-making authority in school Valid Item Frequency Valid Percent Disagree Agree Strongly Agree 18 166 134 5.7 52.2 42.1 Total 318 100.0 Table 3 shows that the vast majority (94%) of respondents in the empirical survey either agreed (52%) or strongly agreed with the statement: School-Based Management has resulted in the provision of wider authority in school for decision-making. This result implies that as perceived by the respondents, authority for decision-making has been vested in school level since the implementation of SBM. In the history of Indonesian education system prior to the implementation of SBM, school principals were the authority figures in school decision-makings. They worked very closely to the district government officials in relation to the arrangements of new school buildings, school renovation, and even school textbooks for children. In such a practice, parents and other school community members never involved in decision-making processes. These practices were in line with Education Law No.2/1989 on National Education System and Government Regulation No.28/1990. It was regulated that central government has the authority in regard with curriculum, textbooks, school facilities, deployment, and development of staff, while authority in relation to new school buildings and renovations are in the hands of district governments (Article 9, Government Regulation 28/1990). In contrast, under SBM scheme, authority in these areas is not solely vested in school principal, but to the school councils. This requires principals to distribute the authority to school council members. The central government decided on the structure and composition of the councils to represent school communities. However, each school itself was given the authority to decide the size of the council based on their school size. Thus, each school has to elect a school council with a minimum of nine members depending on the size of the school. The membership of a school council should comprise of principal and the representatives of teachers, students, parents, school foundations, local governments, and community. The community representatives should consist of: (1) public figures, (2) educational experts; (3) industries or businesses; (4) professional organization of teachers; representatives of alumni; and (5) representatives of students. Apart from electing and/or nominating a maxi mum of three representatives only from teachers, school foundations, and Advisory Body for the Village Governance (Badan Pertimbangan Desa/BPD), there is no limitation of the total number elected from the representatives of the community members. Opinion on How SBM Creates Higher Participation of School Stakeholders An effort was then made to seek the nature of participation of school stakeholders in school decision-makings as perceived by the school stakeholders. Table 4 SBM and higher participation in school Valid Item Frequency Valid Percent Agree Strongly Agree 196 122 61.6 38.4 Total 318 100.0 Table 4 shows that all respondents (100%) stated either agree (62%) or strongly agree (38%) with the statement: SBM implementation has resulted in increased participation if all stakeholders in school. The result indicates how SBM policy in schools has crea

The Nature Of Pastoral Care Theology

The Nature Of Pastoral Care Theology Pastoral care in ministry is one of the most critical ministries found within the Church. Churches are full of individuals who have or are experiencing crisis, anxiety, devoiced, loneliness, lost, grief, sadness, and family issues. These prevailing crises make available to pastors opportunities to assist these individuals mostly by just encouraging and listening to those within their faith community. In many cases, pastors involvement in these crises may only require of them to listen whereas in other the need for trained pastors in specialized ministry of counseling is required. Many individuals now-a-days continue to turn to their pastors as a first source when face with a crisis. Pastors are usually more immediately and directly accessible than some other counseling professionals they do not charge a fee, and they are every so often known and trusted within a community. Since pastors are perceived as generalist, parishioners as well as community residents often look to them for assistance in a wide range of needs, including counseling. A skill acquired by pastors from some useful classes in the area of counseling during their training in seminary as well as an important basic quarter in C.P.E. (Clinical Pastoral Education). Personally, my study in pastoral counseling has given me the necessary tools to effectively counsel my congregants. Such training has led me into the following concepts: Clinical Pastoral Periderm, which focuses on relationship and individuals; the different kinds of Listening Skill introduced by Salvage; the dynamics of Loss Grief with grief being the emotional reaction to loss; Family System Theory a self-regulatory system maintaining its own status, as well as the Family as an Emotional System along with the Eight Concepts of Bowen Theory; Congregational System Pastoral Care; Crisis Counseling which includes the A-B-C Method; Pastoral Issues in Illness; Pastoral for Domestic Violence and Child Abuse; Multi-Cultural Pastoral Care; Gender Difference in Pastoral Care; and finally, Pastoral Intimacy, Power and Professional Boundaries. Pastoral care is the foremost task of ministry by most pastors as well as a majority of congregants, yet, there is a difference relating to pastoral care and the professional discipline of counseling. Some pastors are members of the American Association of Pastoral Counseling which has what one may refer to as an expressed Code of Ethics. The same is true of the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapists, American Psychological Association, etc. There are certainly many potential similarities in the relationship between pastors and professional counselors and the people they serve. All these relationships involve issues of exposure, familiarity and trust. There is an intrinsic disparity of control which some, particularly pastors, is uncomfortable acknowledging, but which exists whenever a person in distress seeks help from one viewed as more experienced. Healing is mostly a main concentration in any aiding relationship. Likewise, borderline concerns must be taken care of so as to construct the safest likely environment in which a counselee or congregant can deal with his or her pain. Nevertheless, there are a number of possible distinctions between pastoral care and professional counseling. Professional counselors are trained to understand the transference and countertransference phenomena, double task tensions, and the boundaries of our trained competency. Like professional counselors, pastors also have codes of conduct to guide our activities, which are spiritual in origin. These codes are based on religious beliefs except for exclusions concerning sexual wrongdoing; pastoral codes usually are more generalized in nature than professional counseling ethical codes of behavior. In contrast to professional counselors, pastors often engage in their ministries in a variety of informal settings with a multiplicity of roles with parishioners. Our core functions as pastors are embedded in a spiritual restraint that touches on many facets of life and society. Although training in counseling can aid pastors to work more effectively with church members, yet our calling to such profession is very distinct. In one of his many writings, Eugene Peterson called on pastors to return to our distinctive, ancient calling which states that our pastoral work is a ministry of Word and Sacrament.  [1]   People believe counseling is a great remedy. Yet many are reluctant says Hansen to see a professional counselor. Perhaps their reluctance is due to the costs of such visit besides, professional counselors ask hard questions. He continues, For me, trying to be a counselor is a mean of saving time and effort. It is a go between my peoples needs to have me do unspecific things for them rather than cautioning them to live through the thick forests of their lives by following Christ in discipleship.  [2]   This means that pastoral care is rooted in word and sacrament not having its origins in various scientifically grounded personality theories but prayer, proclamation, and the word of God. Again, Eugene Peterson emphasizes, pastors responsibility is to keep the community attentive to God.  [3]   Like pastoral care, professional counseling by a pastor is a serious business. Pastors who engage in professional counseling without being trained are treading on dangerous ground, because such is not included within the authority of their ordination. When we do away with what is the ancient activities of pastoral care and engage in professional counseling methods without the necessary training, we are then held to the same standard to that of a licensed counseling professional. Standing before the law, pastors will not have the benefit or protection they have within the ancient practice of pastoral care. Here are several shielding legal guidelines for the practice of ministry: Pastors are to be clear about the expertise offered. We are to refer to our activities in clearly religious terms, not professional counseling terms. Unless we are trained and are willing to adhere to all of the professional standards of licensed professional counselors, pastors are to stay with practices that we can identify as pastoral care. For if we hold ourselves out as professional or psychological counselor, the law of the land will treat us as one. Pastors are not to assume broader duties, which are not part of our competence or calling. Although, the distinction amid pastoral care and professional counseling are clear in many situations, in others they appear less distinct. Yet a process of reflection and discernment is needed most to identify the pastoral role. So the following need to be addressed: Whom am I called to be in this particular ministry setting? What are my sacred functions as one who has a set-apart ministry? What distinguishes my role and relationships from those of psychologists, family therapists, and specialists in pastoral counseling? Where do I set the limits and boundaries to my pastoral activities?  [4]   Pastoral Care in ministry in my estimate is the most important ministry next to the ministry of preaching of the Gospel. People who are hurting is seeking through the pastor from the Gospel a healing balm for their wounds. The Gospel itself addresses the totality of humanity: spiritual and body. When one part is addressed to the negligence of the other the total needs of that person will not be met. Pastors who are sensitive to, and addresses the hurts of members in their congregation through the appropriate counseling technique, are more likely to be successful in ministry then those who neglect these needs. To conclude, Pastoral care is a vital resource that extends to a broader spectrum of individuals with a variation of needs. This opportunity comes with what I will refer to as a wonderful challenge, however; it is necessary for those ministering to such needs, to reflect wisely on their gifts as well as to recognize their limits of their profession. Bibliography Clinebell, Jr., Howard J. Basic Types of Pastoral Counseling (New York: Abingdon press 1984) Hansen, David The Art of Pastoring ( Inter Varsity Press Downer Grove, Illinois 1994) Paterson, Eugene H. Five Smooth Stones for Pastoral Work (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Grand Rapids, MI 1992) Lynch, Gordon Clinical Counseling in Pastoral Settings ( Routledge New York, NY 1999) Paterson, Eugene H. Working the Angles: The Shape of Pastoral Integrity (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Grand Rapids, MI 1987) Ross, Kenneth. Hearing Confessions (London: SPCK Publishing, 1974) Salvage, John Listening Caring Skills (Abingdon Press, Nashville 1996) An Incident in Ministry that illustrates my Approach to Pastoral Care Luke and Nancy was the first inter-racial couple that sought membership at my present pastoral appointment, Spencer Memorial United Methodist Church. For eight years of being their pastor, I have watched them grow diligently in their spiritual walk with the Lord, but something always seems to be lacking within their relationship especially around the Thanksgiving holiday, something that they couldnt get around to talk about but was bothering them. On one Wednesday after Bible Study Nancy asked if she could schedule an appointment so that she could meet with me. Sure I responded to her, so we went ahead and set an appointment to meet an hour earlier on the next Wednesday before Bible Study. When we met following prayers on that Wednesday, Nancy begins by saying that they came to see me to discuss about the death of her father which loss she cannot seem to get rid of. The presenting problem is one in which Nancys father passed away almost immediately when she became a member of Spencer. This occurred rather suddenly after her father was diagnosed of cancer. When word reached her that her father was terminal and the doctors have given him up, she immediately went to be with her mother to assist her while they prepared for the inevitable. Two weeks later after her arrival on Thanksgiving Day, her father passed away leaving her with a sudden stricken grief that after seven years she is finding it very difficult to dealing with her feeling of loss. Recently Nancy went back home to visit her mother because her visit back home had been infrequent since her father passed away. During her visit she was beset with her feelings of loss and now she tells me that she it has been such a long since the death of her father but the pain do not seem to go away. She and her father became close after a long period of estrangement between them and she describes their relationship developing over the years into more unique friendship than that of father and daughter. She tells me that the mode of her grief varies from day to day. On those days when she is so stressed up, she feels the pain of her loss strongly especially when she cannot pick up the phone and dial her father; for her father had grown to become her best friend in spite of their past history and he had been there for her over the last few years of his life. During this whole session, Nancy pattern of speech appears normal yet she wept throughout it. But what was helpful is that we kept good eye contact during our discussion until she became emotional which minimize it. Below are statements showing that during one point of the session empathy was for the most part effective: Nancy: I guess this may sound crazy, but this past Thanksgiving, I went home and my Mom was able to convince me so that we can get rid of his clothes. Something that I said out loud to Mom that we were never ever going to get rid of his clothes because it was the only physical memory that I had of him. On Thanksgiving Day while going through his closet I could smell his distinct cologne (Kouros) on his clothes. It was too difficult; I broke down in the closet crying. Pastor: I know that it must have been hard for you, because I also lost my father to sudden stroke. Nancy: Pastor Morris, it was the hardest thing for me to do. Pastor: It takes a lot of strength to carry that through. Nancy: You can say that, it does. I break down whenever I begin to talk about him. Pastor: You miss him Nancy: Yes Pastor, I miss him so much (she begins to openly sob). Nancy was referring to the feelings of her loss that never seems to go away after seven years. My intent during this session was to reflect on those feelings. In addition, she was critical of herself in the early part of our session for not having moved beyond her feelings of loss. At this point in the session, I became aware of how much she was hurting. It is very important that pastoral wisdom include some general knowledge of grief and mourning process that is informed by those who have done researched and written about it. One of the most influential interpretations of the grief process for me has been Erich Lindemanns study called Symptomatology and Management of Acute Grief,  [5]  in it he affirmed grief as work, something necessary for life rather than something pathological that should be avoided. He also described five things that he had observed in acute grief: (1) guilt, (2) anger, (3) bodily distress, (4) being preoccupy with the deceased image and, (5) loss of customary of patterns of conduct.  [6]   Lindermann theorized that there are discernible stages in the grief process that the grieving person and those who care for that person should be aware of. Recently when Nancy visited her parent home she was overwhelmed with renewed emotions of loss, perhaps as new as they were seven years ago when her father passed away. Furthermore, she expressed her frustration in still undergoing such strong feeling of grief when so much time has passed. This displeasure could be viewed as her inclination to move in an affirmative direction toward healing, and it was her self-actualizing tendency that was seeking to express it. A likely hypothesis as to why Nancy has not moved past her present stage of grief might be that in her societal system the essential conditions that would allow her to discover the know-how in order to process her grief does not exist. She may also have family members in her family that deal with pain differently by discouraging open expression of emotions. If such be the case, then providing empathy might permit her to move past most of the pain that she was experiencing. The below example shows during the session, where the grief focus was shifted: Nancy: I was in denial when the news first hit me that my father was terminal. I got on the next available flight for Dallas. I went down immediately to be with him. Two weeks after my arrival he passed away. Pastor: That was fast. And it seems that you possess lots of pleasant memories of your father Nancy: Yes I do have a lot of good memories, but the hardest thing is the emptiness brought about by the loss. In this example, she described her experience of losing her father. In response, I attempted to direct her focus on the good memories that she had of her father, rather than she dwelling on her loss. However, it seems to me that her focus was on her feelings of emptiness; it was when I regain control of the situation and saidà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Pastor: Nancy, as a pastoral counselor, I certainly am open to the grieving process for those who had lost a loved one but not for such a long period. However, I must honestly say that there is more to the grief that you are undergoing. Even though you have not explain what brought about your estrangement with your parents which may have something to do with prolonged grief. Nancy: (Sobbing againà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) you are right pastor. 17 years ago after falling in love with Luke in College I took him to ask for my parents blessing because we had decided to get married since we were three months pregnant. Not telling them that he is an African American, we drove to my home time in Dallas Texas during our Christmas break. When we arrived, my parents did not receive Luke and forbid me to get marry to him. Because we love each other and were caring a child I went against their decision and got married to Luke thus being banished or ostracized by my parents. In view of this new revelation, I decided to reference the family- systems theory which offers better ways to understand and resolve such problem. For instance: From a Bowenian family-systems perspective, there have been some key emotional cutoffs  [7]  in Nancy family system when she was banished. Its not entirely clear how these things work, but family-therapy research indicates that Nancy present dilemma is somehow connected to this cutoff; moreover, it is only by repairing it and reconnecting with the long-lost, left-behind, and thrown-out members of her family that her presenting problem  [8]  will resolve itself. Therefore, one aspect of a treatment plan recommended would involve my counseling her toward a self-differentiated  [9]  balance between these two extremes (guilt and grief). Finally, Nancy realized that her prolonged grief was because of her guilt after shifting her guilt back and fro.  [10]  I believe my ability to provide empathy  [11]  through reflection was my strength. What was of greater substance was my ability to offer advanced empathy, moving away from her stated words to the indirect emotions beyond her words.

Restrictions on Guns for the Sake of Life :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

"Our cause is just, our cause is real, our cause is now!" cried out Mayor Wellington Webb. While watching the television news, I heard the mayor say this. I also found out that over the past five years one hundred and fifteen homicides occurred each year. Obviously the harmful situation involving guns is growing to new horrible heights. The news show was about gun control. If the mayor acknowledges that there is a problem, we as the citizens should also. Restricting the right to bear arms will undoubtedly make any community safer. However, to do so would take a lot more than just prohibiting the sale of guns. Many people, at least in my community, own guns. Granted, many of these guns are used for hunting, but they are still guns. The authorities would have to take everyone's guns away to really make a community safer. I believe that it would make a community safer because guns kill, accidentally and on purpose. Many people argue that they have guns for protection--protection from the other people who carry guns. They defend their possession of guns saying they can use their guns to kill an intruder. They also argue that their guns are used to hunt and feed their families. Although these defenses may be true, I am brought back to an incident that occurred last year where I lived. A father of a couple of the girls at my school was hunting with his son and he accidentally killed him. This is a terrible tragedy, but it brings us face to face with the reality that even in the most innocent of situations, if a gun is involved there is a possibility of death. Originally, guns were not intended to protect; they were intended to kill. Made for wars, they were weapons of war, in which they were used to fight enemies and to help a country be more powerful, and they are still used for this today. However, today we are fighting a different war. We used to speak of waging war; today we are waging war. This war is against people. Kids are killing kids on rampages through schools. Gang members use guns to kill someone that they just don't like, and then the other gangs must retaliate, which makes it a never-ending cycle. The intent of a gun, whether to protect (as many people say) or not, is to kill someone else.